_______________________________________________ Racial Trauma: The African American Experience
On August 28, 1963, during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, Dr. King delivered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech, which argued for an end to racial discrimination in the United States and advocated for civil and economic rights [6]. Dr. King envisioned the world as being a place that embraced racial unity of all ethnicities and races, and one in which all are treated honorably, respectfully, and fairly. Although King’s dream of racial harmony is supported lawfully on a national level through the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the effects of institutional racism persist. African Americans remain at increased risk of impoverishment, incarceration, and unwarranted force and homicide by law enforcement compared with Caucasian Americans and most other racial minorities. RESILIENCE Resilience is best defined as a vital practice of sustaining positive adaptation and successful coping strategies upon encountering adversity [6]. Academic literature on African American resilience has historically concentrated on the manner in which African American single mothers and children show strength, social networks that promote resilience for African American boys and men, and how resilience correlates to race, love, and nonresident father involvement. Another area of research has been on the prominence of religion for African Americans in conjunction with the strengths of Black communities. Historically, religious involvement and prayer have been symbols of African American resilience; this remains largely true today. Although resilience has been highlighted as a response to racism, this should not imply that society should be content with the current situation. Instead, society should strive to advance social justice for all Americans, minimizing the need for resilience to racial trauma. Racial discrimination and structural racism adversely impact the individual, family, and collective welfare of minorities, and social justice endeavors have the power to improve the standard of living for these populations. Structural racism expressed through adverse interactions with law enforcement, mass incarceration, and impoverishment results in dissatisfaction, resentment, anguish, and decreased well-being and longevity [6]. These negative effects should be explored and understood as they relate to clients’ experiences and possible trauma exposures. [6]. HOUSING AND POVERTY Even with the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 banning housing discrimination, African Americans continue to experience greater rates of poor housing or being unhoused. In the United States, homeownership is considered a main component of economic improvement. However, residential segregation and a racially segmented housing market continue [9]. Unequal access to home loans and the consistent devaluation of homes in Black neighborhoods combine to “constrict the ability of African Americans to build equity and accumulate wealth through homeownership” [9].
African Americans are more likely to be in a lower socioeconomic status than Caucasian Americans, as defined by education, salary, and employment. Low socioeconomic status has been substantially linked to a greater risk for mental health disorders. Even when modified by educational attainment, the unemployment rate for African Americans is substantially greater than their Caucasian counterparts. Employed African Americans are more likely to be in the lowest-paying economic sector. IMMIGRATION AND MIGRATION Nearly 46 million people in the United States, or 13.6%, identify as Black and an additional 3% identifies as multiracial [10]. In the United States, the Black population consists of both African Americans, who often have deep roots in the United States tracing back to slavery, and African, Hispanic, and Caribbean immigrants [11]. As such, immigration and migration can significantly impact the Black population. Immigrant and migrant communities have historically and continue to experience oppression and social and legal challenges; these challenges should be addressed by all Americans [12]. The issue of immigration/migration is linked to the concept of who is able to define the character and future of the United States. Specifically, the racist conception of the United States as a finished product reflecting White ideals is damaging to those who do not fit into this ideal. Instead, it is helpful in addressing immigration and racism to think of the country as a culturally diverse, unfinished project. In order to achieve success, African American individuals build unified affiliations, coalitions, and alliances with other individuals and work to build a new world. Coalition building with immigrant communities involves focusing on self-awareness and social justice, with the goal of improving conditions for all people. This is considered the anti-racist approach to immigration. POLICING AND INCARCERATION Perhaps the most prominent display of racism today is the disproportionate use of force and deaths experienced at the hands of law enforcement. In response, social movements have advocated for law enforcement to treat African Americans with the equal dignity and respect as all Americans. The eradication of structural inequality would alter conditions that increase the risks to physical and psychological security for this population. African Americans are also excessively represented at all levels of the judicial system. They are more inclined to be detained, incarcerated, and sentenced to stricter terms than White Americans. For example, African American adults are 5.9 times as likely their White counterparts to be incarcerated [13]. Racial and ethnic disparities are more marked in men but occur across the spectrum of sex/gender expression. Mass incarceration impacts both the individual and his or her family. According to the Sentencing Project, “the rise of mass incarceration begins with disproportionate levels of police contact with African Americans. This is striking in particular for drug offenses, which are committed at roughly equal rates
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