_______________________________________________ Racial Trauma: The African American Experience
racism) is defined as racism that is codified in a society’s laws and institutions and is rooted in cultural stances that are strengthened through tokenism, discrimination, promotion of ethnic majorities in employment settings, segregation, and suppression. Historically, this has included slavery, Jim Crow laws, disenfranchisement, criminal justice racism, and unethical and damaging research practices (e.g., the Tuskegee Study). More recently, racism in the United States has largely (but not completely) switched from explicit acts to more implicit ones. Examples of implicit racism include: • Microaggression in the form of experiencing low-quality customer service due to an individual’s race • Conditional housing contracts and discrimination in selling or renting homes in specific areas of a community • Application of laws and stricter sentencing disproportionately to communities of color Of course, all forms and levels of racism have long-term effects for victims, bystanders, and society in general.
INTRODUCTION African Americans have endured oppression, racism, and trauma since the founding of this country [1]. The maltreatment of slaves and former slaves (who were considered raw material or merchandise) and the legacy of racial subjugation and enslavement resulted in the eradication of fundamental human rights. The traumatic impact of African American hardships is unconcealed in the modern-day circumstances of the African American community. These effects have been termed racial trauma, defined as “events of danger related to real or perceived experience of racial discrimination, threats of harm and injury, and humiliating and shaming events, in addition to witnessing harm to other ethnoracial individuals because of real or perceived racism” [2]. While similar to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), racial trauma is typically the result of ongoing, consistent exposure to race-related stress rather than a single traumatic event. Diverse cultural views and traditions are intertwined into the foundation of life [3]. Modern society is the most globally mobile in history, and this accelerates the relocation of refugees escaping combat, food crises, violence, and oppression. Frequently, these events coexist with political unrest, ethnocentrism, and racial discrimination and intolerance. As a result, immigrants, refugees, and persons of color are at increased risk for prejudice, hatred, and discrimination. There is significant intersectionality of characteristics and personalities influencing the social landscape in the United States. Any persons who fall outside the hegemonic norms reinforced by structural forces may become an outcast. For those categorized as outcasts, the sociocultural landscape adds to trauma [3]. Racism embedded in social and legal structures of the United States reinforces racial trauma. In order to grasp the intricacies of trauma and the evolution of its social and cultural framework, an adaptable and all- inclusive model, examining sociocultural factors, is essential for improving diagnosis and treatment. RACISM: A BASIC OVERVIEW Very basically, racism is defined as prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against a person or people on the basis of their membership in a minority or marginalized racial or ethnic group. This is often (but not always) paired with a belief that certain racial groups have characteristics that make them inherently superior or inferior. In the United States, racism continues to be a widespread problem on the individual, cultural, and institutional levels [4]. Racial slurs, exclusion, and degradation are examples of individual and cultural racism and reflect an attitude of superiority. Institutional racism (also referred to as systemic
RESPONSES TO RACISM: TRAUMA AND RESILIENCE
The relationship between racism and related adverse physical and psychological effects has been extensively studied and reveals the degree to which African Americans have been at risk due to exposure to stressful life events and persistent trauma, defined as a response to exceedingly harmful events and occurrences in real life and to a universe in which individuals are consistently injured. Persistent trauma, including oppression and exposure to racism, has unequivocally affected African American’s psychological and physical well-being, with end outcomes fluctuating from somatic complaints, depression, and anxiety to post-traumatic stress reactions [1]. Despite the increased risk, a great number of African Americans exhibit psychological resilience rather than psychological distress. Resilience corresponds to universal protective factors; it is not specific to race or culture. It is a process that evolves throughout a person’s lifetime and unfolds from circumstance to circumstance. It is also variable, and an individual can experience and express resilience differently to an identical stressor over time [1]. The development of resilience requires exposure to adversity and positive adaptation. Adversity is any suffering related to unfortunate conditions or events, and traumatic experiences. Positive adaptation is defined as behaviorally manifested social competency or accomplishments in overcoming biologic, psychological, and social challenges throughout a person’s life. Hopefulness, inquisitiveness, elevated levels of energy, and the skill to detach and intellectualize problems combined with self-assurance, positive affect, self-efficacy, self-esteem, optimistic emotions, spirituality, and extraversion shield an individual from potentially harmful trauma and promote resilience.
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