to be critical in helping us understand why a person may experience the world differently than others who share similar identities to them but have a social advantage in one of them. Intersectionality recognizes that social identities such as “woman,” and “disabled” do not exist independently and often converge to construct unique frameworks of oppression that must be first acknowledged in order to create more inclusive dialogue and solutions for all people. For example, while only 21% of corporate leaders in the U.S. are women, only 4% of corporate leaders are women of color, and only 1% are Black women. The vast underrepresentation of Black women in leadership positions can thus be attributed to the disadvantages created by the intersection of race and gender instead of the effects of race or gender alone (U-M LSA Center for Social Solutions, n.d.). Each individual has a multitude of diverse identities; some are visible, and some are not readily identifiable. Each of the identities intersects with the other identities. The multiple intersections can provide for further oppression and marginalization or other power and privilege, and they could mitigate one another, providing some facets of freedom and others of pressure. For example, a Black college professor who is a heterosexual woman with a doctoral degree is often oppressed and marginalized due to her race and gender; however, as a highly educated academic who is not gay, she experiences power and privilege, particularly in the academic classroom setting as the course professor. Another example is a female student who has experienced poverty throughout her life cycle and identifies as biracial and gay; she may experience shared identities that compound her oppression and marginalization (i.e., female, poor, gay, biracial). Intersectionality says that men who do not have privilege in other areas may not experience male privilege similarly. For example, gay men may experience less male privilege than straight men. Men of color, men from a low socioeconomic background, and men who are not naturally masculine may all experience less or different types of male privilege. Members of racial minorities may face additional challenges regarding their mental health, and they tend to have a higher burden of disability due to mental illness. Depression rates in African American and Hispanic people are the same as in other ethnic groups. However, their depression tends to persist longer. Indigenous populations have higher rates of PTSD and alcoholism rates (Spillane et al., 2022). The APA also notes that about 50–75% of youth offenders have a mental illness, and racial minority groups are over- represented in the criminal justice system. Compared to White youth, youth from racial minorities are more likely to be diverted to the criminal justice system rather than the mental health system (Peterson, 2022). The concept of intersectionality provides practical, valuable work for counselors, as it helps them to understand the complexity of clients’ diverse identities. Further, it provides a structure for understanding the multitude of factors that may cause a client to be oppressed and privileged within American society. In this same manner, it is essential to recognize that culture is best described as fluid and subjective, as will be discussed in greater detail concerning counseling with Oppression, Privilege, and Marginalization Oppression Understanding the concepts of oppression, privilege, and marginalization is essential for practicing cultural humility. Various aspects of individual identities oppress or privilege a person and their marginalization or empowerment.
cultural humility. Using an intersectional lens also means recognizing the historical contexts surrounding an issue. Figure 4, “Circles of Intersectionality”, visually describe the numerous elements that impact one’s experiences of multiple identities in this country. Figure 4. Circles of Intersectionality
The center circle represents the overlap among the different aspects of an individual’s identity describing one’s individual experiences regarding power, privilege, identity, and racialization. The next circle goes toward the outer part of the circle and compasses factors like disability, physical health, sexuality, and so on. These different identities influence how each individual will experience bias and various types of discrimination. For instance, if an individual is a racial or ethnic group member, is in a lower class, has a disability, and identifies as a member of the LGBTQ community, that individual is likely to experience various types of bias and discrimination throughout life. In comparison, an individual with a disability and a racial or ethnic group member would likely only experience bias and discrimination from ethnicity and disability status. On the outside of the circle, we see the larger systems that play a role in each of the circles inside. For example, we have all seen that the justice system in this country works differently for White individuals as opposed to people of color. Therefore, any individual dealing with the justice system, as a victim or a perpetrator, will be met with bias and discrimination based on the different identities they ascribe to within the circle. Evidence-Based Practice: The authors argue that the “minority model” framework of disability rights has been racialized in ways that center the experiences of White, middle-class disabled Americans. Note : From “Race and disability: From analogy to intersectionality,” by Frederick, A., et al., 2019. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 5(2), 200–214. Oppression can be defined as an “unjust or cruel exercise of authority or power” (Merriam-Webster, 2021). It refers to a person or group that knowingly or unknowingly abuses a specific group or individual. Further, the word “oppression” comes from the Latin root “primere”, which means “pressed
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