Interestingly, the Duluth Model is not designed to be delivered by a mental health professional but to be facilitated as psychoeducational group work. This may make it less effective if there are additional concerns such as substance abuse or mental health issues (Butters et al., 2021) . The Duluth Model also lacks options for any situation other than heterosexual relationships in which the Pregnant women are especially vulnerable to IPV, and studies indicate that anywhere from 2% to 14% of pregnant women experience IPV during the year of their pregnancy (Creech et al., 2021; D’Angelo et al., 2023; Eikemo et al., 2023) . Violence exposure during pregnancy also contributes to more adverse maternal and fetal outcomes than other pregnancy issues such as preterm birth and per-eclampsia (Creech et al., 2021) . In some situations, violence begins or escalates during pregnancy; however, one of the strongest predictors of violence during pregnancy is abuse prior to pregnancy (D’Angelo et al., 2023) . Regardless of when or why the violence occurs, IPV during pregnancy can result in numerous adverse consequences. These include low birth weight, preterm birth, pregnancy loss, premature rupture of membranes, placental abruption, and other complications (Auger et al., 2021; Pastor-Moreno et al., 2020) .
male partner is the abuser. Providers may be able to find interventions for perpetrators in their areas by contacting the local domestic violence service agency or domestic violence court. These organizations can provide referrals to these programs even when the victim does not press charges against the perpetrator or if the perpetrator is interested in enrolling voluntarily. Pregnancy provides an important opportunity for healthcare providers to identify and intervene in cases of IPV, given that many women seek health services during this time. In fact, the United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) and the American College of Obstetrics and Gynecologists (ACOG) both recommend that pregnant people be routinely screened for IPV (Noursi et al., 2020) . Detection and intervention are critical to prevent the severe adverse outcomes associated with violence during pregnancy. As described previously, the HITS tool is one option for screening for IPV. Another option, commonly used in the clinical setting to identify IPV, is the Abuse Assessment Screen (AAS). The AAS specifically includes a question for identifying IPV among pregnant women (see Box 5). It may be useful to incorporate this tool into routine assessment procedures, particularly if the provider frequently sees pregnant women.
PREGNANCY AND INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE
Box 5: Abuse Assessment Screen Instructions : Circle Yes or No for each question. 1. Within the last year, have you been pushed, shoved, slapped, hit, kicked, choked, or otherwise physically hurt by your partner or ex-partner? YES NO 2. If YES, by whom? ________________ _______________ Total no. of times ________ 3. Since you’ve been pregnant, have you been hit, slapped, kicked, or otherwise physically hurt by someone? YES NO 4. If YES, by whom? _________ ______________________ Total no. of times ________ 5. Within the last year, has anyone forced you to have sexual activities that you did not want? YES NO 6. If YES, by whom? _____ __________________________ Total no. of times ________ 7. Are you afraid of anyone? YES NO If YES, who? __________________________________ Mark the area of injury on a body map. Score each incident according to the following scale: 1 = Threats of abuse including use of weapon ______ 2 = Slapping, pushing; no injuries and/or lasting pain ______ 3 = Punching, kicking, bruises, cuts, and/or continuing pain ______ 4 = Beating up, severe contusions, burns, broken bones ______ 5 = Head injury, internal injury, permanent injury ______ 6 = Use of weapon; wound from weapon ______ SCORE: Adapted from Laughon, K., Renker, P., Glass, N., & Parker, B. (2008). Revision of the Abuse Assessment Screen to address nonlethal strangulation. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing, 37(4), 502-507. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1552-6909.2008.00268.x TECHNOLOGY AND INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE
● Cellular telephones may be used to call, text, and/or leave voicemail repeatedly and from any location. ● Shared cellular plans can enable perpetrators to track calls and texts as well as control access to mobile data and devices. ● Global positioning systems may be used to monitor the partner’s location in real time and can be particularly difficult to detect. ● Social media can be used to track a person even after a break-up, and may provide information about subsequent relationships, and can be used to send messages and create harassing posts. ● Fake social media accounts can be created specifically to harass and humiliate a survivor. ● Image sharing and social media can be used to distribute intimate photos and/or videos (sometimes
Technology can greatly aid IPV victims by providing them with tools for protection, access to services and information, and communication options (Draughon Moret et al., 2022) . There are numerous resources available via internet as well as smart phone for survivors and their families. The myPlan app (www.myPlanapp.org ) in particular can support decision-making with regard to enhanced safety and reducing IPV risk and exposure (Glass et al., 2022) . Unfortunately, however, technology can also assist IPV perpetrators in their efforts to maintain power and control over their victims by increasing victim surveillance, harassment, and intimidation—and has become more common in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic (Afrouz, 2021; Maftei & Dănilă, 2023) . Many common forms of technology can be used by perpetrators to abuse their victims:
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Book Code: SWFL1825
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