lifetime (Leemis et al., 2022) . As many as one in three of these survivors also had long-term health effects of the experience, such as lasting fear, symptoms of post-traumatic stress, and need for medical care (Leemis et al., 2022) . Crime (UNODC), in 2020 roughly 47,000 women and girls worldwide were killed by an intimate partner or family member and accounted for nearly 60% of victims of intimate partner/family-related homicides (2021) . In the United States, 2021 data from the US Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics indicate that 34% of female victims of murder and nonnegligent manslaughter were killed by intimate partners (Smith, 2022) . Burton, 2023) . Since more than 70% of women and 60% of men who reported any lifetime experience of contact sexual violence, physical violence, and/or stalking by an intimate partner indicated that the first such experience occurred before age 25 (Leemis et al., 2022) , it is especially important that healthcare providers working with university and college populations attend to IPV in clinical encounters. $100,000; for a man, it is over $20,000 (National Center for Injury Prevention and Control Division of Violence Prevention, 2022) . Moreover, among those affected by IPV—both direct victims and affected family and friends— almost 290,000 potential years of life were lost (Graham, Ranapurwala, et al., 2021) . partner can exploit to reduce access to readily available services. A study of LGBTQ-identified individuals who experienced IPV found that nearly 17% had experienced identity abuse, or the leveraging of sexual orientation or gender identity against them by an abusive partner, in the past year and that over 40% had such an experience at any point in their lifetime (Woulfe & Goodman, 2021) . Such tactics demonstrate the need to consider the social determinants of health when screening for and intervening in cases of IPV and/or SA in order to provide the most effective and beneficial care to survivors. to involvement in IPV occur at individual, relationship, community, and societal levels (Messing, AbiNader, et al., 2021). Table 1 presents some of the most common risk factors for the perpetration of IPV.
Intimate Partner Violence), conducted by the CDC, reveals that 47% of US women and 44% of US men reported at least one incidence of contact sexual violence, physical violence, and/or stalking by an intimate partner in their Homicide Clearly, the one of the most tragic outcomes of IPV is the death of the victim. IPV can result in the death of one or both intimate partners and in some cases children, other family members, or friends but statistics suggest that only 40% of cases where persons other than the IPV victim die are identified as related to IPV (Kafka et al., 2021) . Women are disproportionately affected by IPV-related homicides. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and
Campus Settings and Considerations for Intimate Partner Violence/Sexual Assault Studies have shown repeatedly that college-aged women bear some of the highest risks for both IPV and SA (Burton & Guidry, 2020; Howard et al., 2019) . This may be due in part to developmental processes that shift both peer group and dating behavior norms in late adolescence and early adulthood, processes that need to be accounted for in providing care for victims in this context (Gepshtein &
Economics IPV not only takes a toll on its immediate victims but also has critical economic implications. In the US, the economic costs of IPV across the lifespan—including medical care for injuries, lost productivity in the workplace, criminal justice proceedings, and other expenditures—total more than $3.6 trillion. For an individual woman, this cost is more than Service Utilization Victims of IPV often require assistance with health, legal, social, financial, and other types of issues (Burton & Guidry, 2021; Gepshtein & Burton, 2023) . Research indicates that victims of IPV are also more likely than those with no history of victimization to seek health services (William et al., 2022) , most likely because of the increased health consequences of the violence. The severity of victimization is another powerful predictor of healthcare utilization and costs, and women affected by IPV are more likely than unaffected women to require hospital care and/or admission (Potter et al., 2021) . Further, there may be factors that an abusive Risk Factors Similarly, a growing body of research has examined factors that may increase the risks of both IPV victimization and IPV perpetration. These risk factors do not necessarily cause IPV but rather indicate an increased likelihood of IPV when one or more of them is present. Risk factors that contribute Table 1: Risk Factors for Intimate Partner Violence Level Risk Factors Individual ● Low self-esteem ● Low income ● Low academic achievement ● Young age
● Aggressive or delinquent behavior as a youth ● Heavy alcohol and drug use ● Depression ● Anger and hostility
● Antisocial personality traits ● Borderline personality traits ● Prior history of being physically abusive ● Having few friends and being isolated from other people ● Unemployment ● Emotional dependence and insecurity ● Belief in strict gender roles (e.g., male dominance and aggression in relationships) ● Desire for power and control in relationships
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