behaviors, indicative of executive dysfunction, which often cause impaired functioning in academic and social settings. A Treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder Treatment for ADHD involves behavioral interventions and/or medications, depending on the age of the child, preferences of the family, and severity of the symptoms and associated impairment (Barkley, 2016; Pelham et al., 2016). Results of neuropsychological evaluations can provide important insights to guide behavioral interventions. For example, if executive dysfunction is evident, strategies can be devised for parents and teachers to provide structure to the child’s daily schedule and to develop activities to help with organization, planning, and self- regulation. Positive reinforcement schedules also are effective tools to promote self-regulation. For another child, difficulties Definition of specific learning disorder According to the DSM-5 , specific learning disorder is implicated when “difficulties learning and using academic skills” are evident in reading, spelling, written expression, and/or in mathematical reasoning (APA, 2013, p. 66). Further, “the affected academic skills are substantially and quantifiably below” expectations based on age and cause interference with academic or occupational functioning (APA, 2013, p. 67). Severity of the disorder is specified as mild, moderate, or severe. Learning Prevalence and course of specific learning disorder Specific learning disorders affect an estimated 5% to 15% of school-aged children (APA, 2013), with non-Hispanic Black children diagnosed at the highest rates (Zablotsky & Alford, 2020). Many specific learning disorders are co- occurring, so a person may have learning difficulties in multiple academic domains. Most specific learning disorders persist into adulthood; persons with a specific learning disorder may learn to Etiology and neurobiology of specific learning disorder Specific learning disorders are neurodevelopmental disorders that are present early in life, are tied to maldevelopment or dysfunction in some neuroanatomical regions, and have a strong genetic contribution. Imaging data suggest that reading disorders are associated with dysfunction in cortical language regions, where left hemisphere temporal and parietal lobes meet (Pennington et al., 2019a). Multiple brain regions have Assessment and diagnosis of specific learning disorder A psychoeducational or neuropsychological evaluation is essential to diagnose a specific learning disorder. The evaluation should include assessment of IQ, academic achievement, attention, executive functions, language, visuospatial abilities, and learning and memory. Psychiatric, educational, and occupational histories are needed because specific learning disorders are developmental disorders. Review of records from Interventions for specific learning disorder Results of the neuropsychological evaluation also are necessary for treatment planning. In academic contexts, persons with specific learning disorders often benefit from support services and interventions. Accommodations might include extra time for tests and assignments, a note-taker in lecture classes, audio recordings of lectures, books on tape, alternate examination formats, reductions in homework or in reading assignments, Diagnostic criteria for autism spectrum disorder According to the DSM-5 , autism spectrum disorder is diagnosed when there is “persistent impairment in reciprocal social communication and social interaction (Criterion A), and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities (Criterion B)” (APA, 2013, p. 53). Symptoms are evident from early in life and cause functional impairment. In addition to ranking severity, specifiers for autism spectrum disorder
neuropsychological evaluation can be useful in documenting areas in which a child has difficulty in controlling their behavior.
with sustained attention and “daydreaming” may be more problematic than impulsivity and, consequently, cues and other strategies to help the child stay “on task” may be indicated. For the child who is easily overwhelmed by larger tasks (e.g., cleaning their room or doing a book report), breaking big projects or duties into smaller, manageable parts can be useful. Rewards for completing small steps toward the bigger goal can be utilized. Thus, results of the neuropsychological evaluation for ADHD can be helpful to determine what types of behavioral interventions might be useful for a particular child and why.
SPECIFIC LEARNING DISORDER
disorders interfere with daily functioning and are not better explained by another neurologic disorder. Learning disorders often are characterized by cognitive deficits that impair the ability to learn and function at school or work settings and can occur in children and adults (Fletcher & Grigorenko, 2017). In the DSM-5 , there are three specifiers for specific learning disorder: (1) with impairment in reading, (2) with impairment in written expression, and (3) with impairment in mathematics (APA, 2013). compensate for their difficulties over time and the presentation of specific learning disorders can be different in adults versus children. Further, since many adults are no longer in school, the impairment associated with a specific learning disorder may be more evident in their occupational performance than on academic achievement testing (Mapou, 2009). been implicated in arithmetic processes and calculation, including the left and right parietal regions and the frontal lobes (Pennington et al., 2019b). A vast cerebral network of frontal and temporal cortices is implicated in written expression because psychomotor, memory, and executive function processes are implicated in their etiology (Fenwick et al., 2016). schools, previous evaluations, and standardized tests is an essential component of any neuropsychological evaluation (Suhr, 2015). Results of neuropsychological testing reveal patterns of cognitive strengths and weaknesses and provide the basis for diagnosing a specific learning disorder; they also assess for the presence of comorbid disorders such as ADHD or a depressive disorder. proofreading services, a writing tutor, a study companion, a case manager, or course substitution (Fletcher & Grigorenko, 2017). The neuropsychologist plays an important role in identifying and justifying which services might be useful for a particular case. For example, if a patient is found to have a relative weakness in processing speed, then extra testing time would be indicated.
AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
are: with or without intellectual impairment; with or without accompanying language impairment; associated with a known medical or genetic condition or environmental factor; associated with another neurodevelopmental, mental, or behavioral disorder; or with catatonia. The DSM-5 autism spectrum disorder diagnosis encompasses the previously distinct diagnoses of pervasive developmental disorder and Asperger’s syndrome. The
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