Chapter summary Clinical neuropsychology is a specialty field that melds clinical psychology and neuroscience. Practitioners have a professional history shaped by many critical historical events (e.g., World War II, advent of the MRI) and an integrated model of training that was described in the training guidelines from the 1997 Houston Conference. The knowledge base and skills of clinical neuropsychologists tend to be broad. Thus, when collaborating with clinical neuropsychologists, know that their expertise and skills go far beyond that of brain-behavior relationships. Introduction The goal of this chapter is to provide a basic overview of how the brain functions and highlight some of the major neuroanatomical structures and systems. This review is necessarily selective, but it serves as an introduction to how the brain is involved in psychological processes. The journey to understanding the organization of the brain will begin with a brief overview of brain Neurons and glial cells There are several types of cells in the brain. One type, the neuron , is specialized to transmit information and communicate with other neurons via chemical messengers called neurotransmitters . Neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin are synthesized within neurons and secreted from one neuron and received by another neuron that has receptors specialized to recognize and react to a particular neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitter systems are often the targets of medication (e.g., to treat depressive disorders) and are implicated in the development of certain neurocognitive disorders such as those due to Parkinson’s disease (Jankovic & Tan, 2020). Another cell type, the glial cell , does not play a major role in processing information but, rather, a supporting role. For example, some glial cells form myelin , which is a protective Organization of the brain: Bottom to top This review of neuroanatomy will begin at the base of the brain and will move upward. Generally speaking, structures that are lower in the brain regulate more primitive and life- sustaining processes, such as heart rate and respiration. Injuries to lower brain structures are often fatal. Moving upward, the brain structures are increasingly involved in more complex and psychologically relevant processes. Injuries to higher structures – such as the cerebral cortex – are less often fatal but are more The brainstem The brainstem is at the base of the brain and is composed of three main parts (Figure 2-1b). At the bottom of the brainstem is the medulla , which is immediately above and attached to the spinal cord. The medulla is responsible for controlling vital life functions, such as respiration and heart rate. Above the medulla is the pons , which plays a role in motor and sensory processes. At the top of the brainstem is the midbrain , which houses structures that are involved in auditory ( inferior colliculus ) and visual reflexes ( superior colliculus ). The midbrain also houses a The cerebellum Behind the brainstem is the cerebellum (Figure 2-1b). It looks like a “little brain” attached to the lower base of the brain. The cerebellum plays an important role in helping to control and coordinate motor movements. For example, when someone throws a ball, the cerebellum facilitates smooth and coordinated movement. These types of motor process have long been tied to the workings of the cerebellum; however, in more recent years the cerebellum was discovered to play a role in other psychological processes, such as procedural learning and certain aspects of executive functioning.
Their training in clinical psychology includes coursework in psychopathology, psychotherapy, diagnosis, ethics, and multicultural issues, and they are trained to work with persons of all ages and from diverse backgrounds. They are skilled diagnosticians and also well-versed in intervention techniques, including rehabilitation and psychotherapy. Thus, they can be valuable consultants, collaborators, and/or members of interdisciplinary teams dealing with mental and behavioral health issues.
CHAPTER 2: THE FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN
cells and how they function. Next, major anatomical regions of the brain will be highlighted, along with some information about the functions of these brain regions. Differences between the two major halves, or hemispheres, of the brain are discussed. All of this information is integrated in the final section’s explanation of “brain circuits.” coating that insulates parts of neurons to help speed the transfer of information in the brain. Glial cells wrap around the tails of neurons, called axons , to form the myelin. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a disorder in which myelin is broken down to the extent that neurons are eventually damaged or killed (Lemus et al., 2018). As a result, neuronal communication is disrupted, and many brain processes can go awry. Movements may be less accurate and slow, sensations of numbness or pain can emerge, and cognitive deficits can occur. MS is further detailed in Chapter 5. Neurons and glial cells are the basic building blocks of larger structures in the brain. Neuropsychologists are primarily concerned with the function of these larger anatomical structures and how their interconnections are functioning. The next section will review major parts of the brain as well as their functional significance.
NEUROANATOMY: A TOUR OF THE BRAIN
likely to disrupt such psychological processes as emotion regulation, decision making, memory, language, attention, concentration, and visual perception. The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of cells in the brain and is divided into four lobes: the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal (Figure 2-1a). The functions of higher-order structures will be described in greater detail due to their relevance to psychological processes. part of the brain called the substantia nigra (Figure 2-2a), which is an area affected by Parkinson’s disease. Cells in the substantia nigra produce a neurotransmitter called dopamine , which, in part, helps to regulate motor movements. In Parkinson’s disease, the cells of the substantia nigra begin to die or degenerate and, subsequently, less dopamine is produced, which causes the motor stiffness and rigidity that are classic features of Parkinson’s disease (Jankovic & Tan, 2020). There is only one medulla, pons, midbrain, and cerebellum in the brain, but other brain structures are bilateral – one on the right and one on the left. The brain can be divided into left and right hemispheres, or halves. Above the midbrain, identical structures are found in each half of the brain. Before proceeding with the tour of brain structures, it is useful to understand a little more about how the two hemispheres of the brain are different.
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