that preference from other individuals (e.g., female, LGBTQ, disabled). Privilege can include many advantages, including the benefit of the doubt and feeling a sense of belongingness (Minarik, 2017). When most individuals hear the term “privilege,” they automatically think of White privilege. However, other types of privilege exist in this country. Heterosexual privilege is another common type of privilege, and it has been discussed more recently. It is described as unearned, often unconscious or taken- for-granted benefits afforded to heterosexuals in a heterosexist society based on sexual orientation. There are many rights and privileges that accompany being heterosexual in this country. For instance, individuals who identify as heterosexual do not have to consider such things as whether they can engage in public recognition and support for an intimate relationship; expect family-of-origin support for a life partner/lover/companion; or kiss, hug, and be affectionate in public without threat or punishment. Another type of privilege, “male privilege,” has also been discussed in recent years within the context of “toxic masculinity.” Male privilege is the belief that men are automatically granted certain privileges and advantages in politics, society, and the workplace based entirely on their gender. Male privilege, then, means men are given advantages that women are not. For example, because men are more often in positions of power, men lower on the corporate ladder may get more mentoring opportunities than women. However, the men mentoring and the mentees themselves may not consider why women are not given the same opportunities. In many cases, men are centered and catered to in career progression and pay and can be treated more respectfully and listened to more in everyday conversations. You have probably heard expressions like “man up,” “guy code,” or “real men do not cry.” While the concept of gender is often associated with women, statements like these reflect gendered expectations for men too. These terms refer to the unspoken “rules” men are “supposed” to follow (Healthy Masculinity, n.d.). From childhood, boys and men are often called out for behavior that does not match society’s definition of manhood. This forces men to make a choice to either: 1. Go along with stereotypical male roles, even if they disagree with them; or 2. Push back against the rules and feel like they are “going against the grain” (Healthy Masculinity, n.d.). Regarding toxic masculinity, it has become a catchall explanation for male violence and sexism. The term’s appeal distinguishes “toxic” traits such as aggression and self-entitlement from “healthy” masculinity. Sociologist Raewynn Connell and others theorized that common masculine ideals such as social respect, physical strength, and sexual potency become problematic when they set unattainable standards. Falling short can make boys and men insecure and anxious, prompting them to use force to feel and be seen as dominant and in control. Male violence in this scenario does not emanate from something harmful or toxic that has crept into the nature of masculinity itself. Instead, it comes from these men’s social and political settings, the particularities of which set them up for inner conflicts over social expectations and male entitlement (Salter, 2019). Other types of privilege include religious privilege such as being able to find a place of worship near you and feeling a sense of connection between your religious celebrations and broader society. For example, automatically having a day off from work for your religious holidays is a religious privilege. Religious privilege is a specific type of privilege that may be difficult to recognize based on your religious background. Christian privilege is the idea that Christians receive inherent advantages in society (or in the workplace) due to the perception that Christianity is the status quo while other religions are not. As a result, other religions are marginalized, overlooked, ignored, or even perceived as troubling, problematic, or suspicious.
Healthcare Professional Consideration: Emerging statistics demonstrate that COVID-19
disproportionately affects African Americans. The effects of COVID-19 for this population are inextricably linked to areas of systemic oppression and disenfranchisement, which are exacerbated by COVID-19: (1) healthcare inequality; (2) segregation, overall health, and food insecurity; (3) underrepresentation in government and the medical profession; and (4) inequalities in participatory democracy and public engagement. Note : From “Social equity and COVID-19: The case of African Americans,” by Wright, J. E., et al., 2020. Public Administration Review, 80(5), 820–826. Reflect on your life and experiences; what experiences do you have with power and oppression? In thinking about the “two faces” of power and oppression, how have you seen power and oppression operate in your life or the life of others in your community? How might these answers impact your perspective in your work with others? Oppression is a commonly referenced term in many counseling disciplines. The term has several definitions, or in some instances, it is not defined. The varied definitions or lack of explanation lead to confusion regarding its meaning in counseling. Oppression consists of the barriers present as a result of cultural and sociopolitical forces that serve to prevent certain groups of people, based on group characteristics (e.g., LGBTQ, impoverished, African American, Muslim, etc.), from accessing resources and opportunities that are readily available to others (Seethaler, 2014; Van Soest, 2013). Barriers include restricted access to such resources and opportunities as high-quality public education and stable, well-paying jobs. Oppression is expressed systematically and enforced by cultural ideology and the threat of violence (Van Soest, 2013). It is not accidental and voidable by the populations that experience it. It is meant to maintain the current societal status quo (Seethaler, 2014). Understanding “the unavoidability of oppressive forces for many groups” (Seethaler, 2014, p. 43) is essential. Oppression is not something individuals can work their way out of or avoid by changing their behavior. In counseling, it is necessary to recognize and address the systemic nature of oppression and its role in clients’ and counselors’ lives. The power dynamic within the counseling relationship must be identified in individual counseling sessions. Attention needs to be paid to equalizing the power related to entering into a partnership with clients; the counselor and client bring essential knowledge to the relationship (Sue & Sue, 2016). As part of practicing cultural humility, counselors are called on to take an active role in addressing oppression outside the office on institutional levels and to make any power differentials that affect the client within the service environment or other areas within the client’s life. Privilege Oppression results in the privileging of certain groups and the marginalizing of other groups. Privilege is a central concept within the counseling profession and in work to address oppression. The ideas of “White privilege” and “male privilege” were clearly articulated and widely disseminated through Peggy McIntosh’s work in the 1980s. McIntosh said that White male privilege is “an invisible package of unearned assets which he can count on cashing in each day, but about which he was ‘meant’ to remain oblivious. White privilege is like an invisible weightless knapsack of special provisions, assurance, tools, maps, guides, codebooks, passports, visas, clothes, compass, emergency gear, and blank checks” (McIntosh, 1998, p. 1). Privileging is “a process where chances or odds of being offered an opportunity are altered or skewed to the advantage of members of certain groups” (Minarik, 2017, p. 55). Essentially, privilege provides some groups of individuals (e.g., White, male, heterosexual, abled, middle class) with preferred treatment in the form of unique opportunities and advantages while withholding
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