Previously trafficked persons may find themselves exiting and re-entering the trafficking system at various stages of the cycle (Zimmerman et al., 2011). This can occur for a number of reasons. In some cases, the trafficker may still be nearby and may track the survivor in his or her daily movements (Jobe, 2010). The trafficker may even employ past recruitment techniques (e.g., substance use, threats, violence, intimacy) to regain control of the person. In other cases, the survivor may simply return to the same conditions that made him or her vulnerable initially. For example, the person may have limited economic opportunities or may now have increased debt due to health issues acquired while being trafficked. and occasionally providing indulgences. Table 1 connects these methods to their purpose. Other tactics traffickers use to control others psychologically include threats, degradation, and enforcement of trivial demands.
many of the same factors that led to his or her initial trafficking, such as poverty and/or abuse (Zimmerman et al., 2011). Additionally, many new obstacles can prevent (re)integration; stigmas and the continuation of preceding factors make retrafficking prevalent among survivors. The integration/reintegration process is considered complete when the individual believes he or she has been accepted by the community and included in its economic, cultural, and political aspects (Zimmerman et al., 2011). Retrafficking Psychological methods used in human trafficking Traffickers use numerous psychological methods to manipulate individuals and maintain their compliance (Baldwin et al., 2014). Such methods of coercion include isolating the person, monopolizing perception, inducing debility and exhaustion, Table 1: Human Trafficking Health Risks and Consequences Health Risks
Potential Consequences
Physical abuse, deprivation. Threats, intimidation, abuse.
Physical health problems, including death, contusions, cuts, burns, broken bones. Mental health problems, including suicidal ideation and attempts, depression, anxiety, hostility, flashbacks, and re-experiencing of symptoms. Sexually transmitted infections (including HIV), pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, vaginal fistula, unwanted pregnancy, unsafe abortion, and poor reproductive health.
Sexual abuse.
Substance misuse: drugs (legal and illegal), alcohol. Social restrictions and manipulation and emotional abuse. Economic exploitation: debt bondage, deceptive accounting. Legal insecurity: forced illegal activities, confiscation of documents. Occupational hazards: dangerous working conditions, poor training or equipment, exposure to chemicals, bacterial or physical dangers. Marginalization: structural and social barriers, including isolation, discrimination, linguistic and cultural barriers, difficult logistics.
Overdose, drug and alcohol addiction.
Psychological distress, inability to access care.
Insufficient food or liquid, climate control, poor hygiene, risk-taking to repay debts, insufficient funds to pay for care. Restriction from or hesitancy to access services, resulting in deterioration of health and exacerbation of conditions. Dehydration, physical injury, bacterial infections, heat or cold overexposure, cut or amputated limbs.
Unattended injuries or infections, debilitating conditions, psychosocial health problems.
Note . Adapted from Zimmerman, C., Hossain, M., & Watts, C. (2011). Human trafficking and health: A conceptual model to inform policy, interven - tion and research. Social Science and Medicine , 73(2), 327-335. Isolation
trafficker’s demands. By enforcing strict demands while depriving the person of basic needs, such as food, water, and health care, traffickers ensure that the trafficked person is too weak to flee or fight (Baldwin et al., 2014). Common exhaustion methods include preventing the trafficked person(s) from sleeping and eating. Traffickers also dehumanize and degrade trafficked persons (Baldwin et al., 2014). This degradation is commonly evident in the lack of medical care trafficked persons receive. Health concerns further weaken the trafficked individual. Demonstrations of omnipresence Traffickers create a sense of always watching those they are trafficking. This often is achieved by involving other people in the trafficking operation or using other trafficked individuals as informants. Trafficked persons may be given cell phones as an indulgence, but these may contain tracking devices that alert the trafficker to the person’s movements and conversations (Baldwin et al., 2014). In other cases, traffickers may simply call those who are allowed to roam frequently as a means of monitoring their actions and movements.
People who are cut off from their social support networks or who have only weak support systems are less resistant to being exploited (Baldwin et al., 2014). Often, traffickers can achieve this type of isolation by transporting the person away from friends and family and cutting off communications and normal networks. (Zimmerman et al., 2011). Those who remain in their original residence may still experience extreme control in all of their social interactions. Monopolization of perception Traffickers typically limit the amount of information that trafficked individuals can access to ensure that the traffickers are the primary focus of attention; this allows the traffickers to mold the trafficked individuals’ thoughts based on their personal needs and wants (Baldwin et al., 2014). This manipulation, combined with restricted communications, makes it possible to control the person’s perspective, which enforces compliance and decreases resistance. Induced debility and exhaustion Trafficked persons are often pushed to the brink of their physical limits in an attempt to make them more malleable to the
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