______________________________________________________________ Understanding Domestic Violence
Laws differ concerning whether victim fear is a requirement during instances of stalking. Similarly, within the field of stalking, there is ongoing discussion about the necessity of mandating a fear criterion in measures of stalking prevalence. If a fear criterion is enforced, it remains unclear what degree of fear qualifies an individual as a stalking victim. In instances of stalking, victims may perceive the danger of the situation differently, leading to varying levels of reported fear, ranging from minimal to none, even if the circumstances would typi- cally instill fear in a “reasonable person.” Some experts in the field have explored alternative methods of capturing similar concepts of fear (Breiding et al., 2015). • Psychological Aggression: Use of verbal and nonverbal communication with the intent to: ‒ harm another person mentally or emotionally, and/or ‒ exert control over another person.
‒ Continual verbal pressure, such as when the victim is being worn down by someone who repeatedly asks for sex or, for example, by someone who complains that the victim doesn’t love them enough ‒ False promises by the perpetrator (e.g., promising marriage, promising to stay in the relationship, etc.) ‒ Nonphysical threats such as threats to end a relationship or spread rumors ‒ Grooming and other tactics to gain a child’s trust ‒ Control of a person’s sexual behavior/ sexuality through threats, reprisals, threat to transmit STDs, threat to force pregnancy, and so on. • Stalking: A pattern of repeated, unwanted, attention and contact that causes fear or concern for one’s own safety or the safety of someone else (e.g., family member, close friend). Stalking acts by a perpetrator can include but are not limited to: ‒ Repeated and unwanted phone calls, voice messages, text messages, pages, and hang-ups ‒ Repeated and unwanted emails, instant messages, or messages through websites (e.g., Facebook) ‒ Leaving cards, letters, flowers, or presents when the victim doesn’t want them ‒ Watching or following from a distance ‒ Spying with a listening device, camera, or global positioning system (GPS) ‒ Approaching or showing up in places (e.g., home, work, school) when the victim does not want to see them ‒ Leaving strange or potentially threatening items for the victim to find ‒ Sneaking into the victim’s home or car and doing things to scare the victim by letting them know they (perpetrator) had been there ‒ Damaging the victim’s personal property, pets, or belongings ‒ Harming or threatening to harm the victim’s pet ‒ Making threats to physically harm the victim Criteria for stalking victimization: Victim must have experienced multiple stalking tactics or a single stalking tactic multiple times by the same perpetrator and felt fearful or believed that they or someone close to them would be harmed or killed as a result of the perpetrator’s behavior.
Psychologically aggressive acts are not physical acts of violence, and in some cases may not be perceived as aggression because they are covert and manipulative in nature. Nevertheless, psychological aggression is an essential component of intimate partner violence for a number of reasons.
First, psychological aggression frequently accompanies other types of intimate partner violence, and studies indicate that it often precedes physical and sexual violence in abusive rela- tionships. Second, instances of psychological aggression can substantially amplify the impact of other forms of intimate partner violence; for example, the fear resulting from physical assault by an intimate partner is likely heightened if the partner has previously made threats of lethal harm. Third, research suggests that the repercussions of psychological aggression from an intimate partner are just as significant as those of physical violence. However, there is a need for further investigation regarding the assessment of psychological aggression, particu- larly in determining when such behavior crosses the threshold into psychological abuse (Breiding et al., 2015). Psychological aggression can include but is not limited to: • Expressive aggression (e.g., name-calling, humiliating, degrading, acting angry in a way that seems dangerous) • Coercive control (e.g., limiting access to transportation, money, friends, and family; excessive monitoring of a person’s whereabouts and communications; monitoring or interfering with electronic communication (e.g., emails, instant messages, social media) without permission; making threats to harm self; or making threats to harm a loved one or possession)
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