______________________ Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Theory, Techniques, and Applications, 3rd Edition
thinking, living in harmony with nature, and achieving inner calm and freedom from suffering through reflection, logic, and wisdom. The four cardinal values of Stoic philosophy were wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance. Stoicism was not simply a philosophy but also a way of life that included the regular practice of reason, Socratic dialogue, and the focus of attention on contact with the present moment. The ancient principles underlying Stoic philosophy were the forerunners of cognitive philosophy and its application to human functioning and behavior. Modern cognitive therapy emerged centuries later. In the mid-1900s, behaviorism and psychoanalysis were called into question, and the limitations of these theories were noted. As scientists and practitioners became aware of the importance and contribution of internal processes in addition to external influences, they could no longer ignore the impact of cognition on behavior and began to emphasize how internal and private events shape human functioning. Today’s cognitive therapy originates from many great thinkers and researchers, most notably Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis, who each developed cog- nitive approaches to treating psychopathology. Dissatisfied with the psychoanalytic orientation in which he was trained, Beck developed the cognitive model of depression and the concept that cognitive processing distortions underlie psychological disorders. Ellis also identified processing errors and described them as irrational thoughts. Ellis developed an approach to treatment called rational emotive therapy , which emphasized that it is not simply events that cause pain and suffering but also people’s views of those events. Ellis proposed that change in behavior and emotions occurring in reaction to an event is possible through identifying and modifying unrealistic and/or irrational beliefs (Messer & Kaslow, 2019). He also introduced the ABC model, which reflects the relationship among (A) antecedent events, (B) beliefs and behaviors, and (C) consequences (Messer & Kaslow, 2019). Three other influential figures have also contributed to understanding cognitions’ role in behavior. Albert Bandura (Bandura, 2023) developed social learning theory, demon- strating through his research that internal cognitive processes mediate the connection between a reinforcer and a response (Leahy, 2002). Donald Meichenbaum (1977) discovered that people have an internal dialogue about their behavior and that internalized speech impacts emotional disorders. His model included techniques including rehearsing self-statements and modeling (Messer & Kaslow, 2019). In 1975, Seligman proposed the model of “learned helplessness,” noting that individuals are prone to depression when they believe they lack control over essential aspects and outcomes in their lives (Messer & Kaslow, 2019). BECK’S THEORY OF DEPRESSION It is worth expanding on Beck’s theory of depression, as his work has become the catalyst for much of what is considered cognitive therapy today. Beck emphasized the role of cognitive structures in depression. According to his theory, depression
INTRODUCTION This course is an introduction to the cognitive model of psychology and provides the background necessary for under- standing the application of techniques associated with first-, second-, and third-wave cognitive-behavioral therapies (CBTs). Given the extensive literature base, current studies are no longer focused on how well this cognitive-behavioral therapy works but rather on expanding the most effective applications of CBT interventions across different psychopathologies, the neurobiological effects of the therapy, and applications with cli- ents across the lifespan, with virtual and technological delivery (A.T. Beck & Haigh, 2014; Messer & Kaslow, 2019). Advances in theory and application have included the movement from first- and second-wave cognitive behavioral therapies to the “third wave.” Third-wave CBT approaches expand cognitive therapy’s foundation to include a contextual component, including concepts such as values, mindfulness, acceptance, and metacognition. Although cognitive therapy has been clearly established as an evidence-based practice, many mental health professionals remain unfamiliar with or misinformed about the founda- tional concepts, techniques, and applications associated with the cognitive model. Cognitive therapies aim not to allevi- ate all current and future distress but to focus the client on understanding their automatic thoughts and beliefs resulting in mental suffering. To this end, cognitive therapy teaches the client tools to mitigate distress and function more adaptively. This basic-level course discusses critical components of cogni- tive therapy, including assessment, case formulation, interven- tion techniques, and applications, and it addresses potential challenges associated with using cognitive therapy and its methods. A secure understanding of cognitive therapy serves as the foundation for utilization of third-wave treatments and virtual technological engagement. This course is written for social workers, mental health counselors, marriage and family therapists, and psychologists. Specific suggestions are provided for further training and reading should the learner wish to pursue competency in practice as a cognitive therapist. DEVELOPMENT OF THE COGNITIVE MODEL The philosophical roots of cognitive theory are reflected in the works of the Stoic philosophers (Messer & Kaslow, 2019). Epictetus stated in the first century that “what upsets people is not things themselves but their judgments about the things” (Messer & Kaslow, 2019). The Greek philosophers understood that reacting to external events caused anguish. Stoicism in ancient Greece did not carry the same meaning as the word “stoic” does today, currently used to convey impassive endurance. Stoicism did not embrace the absence of emo- tions; in fact, emotions were quite valued, and inner calm did not require that a person be devoid of emotion. Instead, the Stoics emphasized the importance of clear and unbiased
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