gender is often associated with women, statements like these reflect gendered expectations for men too. These terms refer to the unspoken “rules” men are “supposed” to follow (Healthy Masculinity, n.d.). From childhood, boys and men are often called out for behavior that does not match society’s definition of manhood. This forces men to make a choice to either: 1. Go along with stereotypical male roles, even if they disagree with them; or 2. Push back against the rules and feel like they are “going against the grain” (Healthy Masculinity, n.d.). Regarding toxic masculinity, it has become a catchall explanation for male violence and sexism. The term’s appeal distinguishes “toxic” traits such as aggression and self- entitlement from “healthy” masculinity. Sociologist Raewynn Connell and others theorized that common masculine ideals such as social respect, physical strength, and sexual potency become problematic when they set unattainable standards. Falling short can make boys and men insecure and anxious, prompting them to use force to feel and be seen as dominant and in control. Male violence in this scenario does not emanate from something harmful or toxic that has crept into the nature of masculinity itself. Instead, it comes from these men’s social and political settings, the particularities of which set them up for inner conflicts over social expectations and male entitlement (Salter, 2019). Other types of privilege include religious privilege such as being able to find a place of worship near you and feeling a sense of connection between your religious celebrations and broader society. For example, automatically having a day off from work for your religious holidays is a religious privilege. Religious privilege is a specific type of privilege that may be difficult to recognize based on your religious background. Christian privilege is the idea that Christians receive inherent advantages in society (or in the workplace) due to the perception that Christianity is the status quo while other religions are not. As a result, other religions are marginalized, overlooked, ignored, or even perceived as troubling, problematic, or suspicious. Socioeconomic privilege is complex because it looks different for everyone (5 Main Types of Privileges, 2021). While to some people, it means being able to afford luxury goods; to others, it means being able to afford to go to university or to have a roof over your head and a place to sleep at night. Having socioeconomic privilege does not necessarily mean being wealthy. However, it can mean having enough resources to be able to take on the opportunities that life has given you, such as unpaid internships or an after-school tutoring job; these types of privileges can give you a head start in the job market (5 Main Types of Privileges, 2021). Able-bodied privilege is a lot like the basic perception of “normal.” Able-bodied privilege assumes that everyone can see, walk, hear, and talk, for example, constructing environments around these “non-negotiable” attributes. Fundamentally, it originates from the idea that because one is nondisabled, one might presume that everyone else can do the same things one takes for granted, such as running, listening to the radio, reading a book, or accessing public buildings with ease. Sighted individuals can read a newspaper to find new job opportunities; a person with vision impairment cannot. An individual without hearing impairments can listen to the radio, while some may need listening devices to do the same. Individuals who are not privileged experience the opposite, such as being an automatic suspect or having to prove their right to belong (Minarik, 2017). Based on social context, privilege can look different for different people at different
times. Something as small and often imperceptible as the fact that most people at your workplace or school look like you can be an example of privilege. On the other hand, more considerable social advantages, such as not having your citizenship questioned when dealing with security officials or not being harassed in public spaces, can also be a form of privilege (U-M LSA Center for Social Solutions, n.d.). Privilege is not a guarantee of success for those groups who receive it; however, it is an advantage that other groups do not accept. A final key aspect regarding privilege is that it is not necessarily visible to those who receive it. The invisibility of privilege is the critical component that allows it to continue. More simply, when those who receive privilege do not recognize it, they cannot take action to change it. Once individuals become aware of privilege, they may use privilege’s benefits to advocate for marginalized populations. Self-Assessment Question 2 When discussing oppression and privilege, healthcare professionals should know that a. Privilege is the commission of an unjust or cruel exercise of authority or power. b. Privilege is a guarantee of success for groups receiving it. c. Oppression’s foundation is in the “me too” movement. d. Oppression leads to a condition of privilege for the person or the group that is the oppressor(s). Marginalization is another crucial concept in counseling. In the context of oppression, privilege, cultural humility, and social justice, marginalization is the pushing aside and exclusion of certain groups (e.g., ethnic and racial minorities, immigrants, LGBTQ individuals, individuals with a disability, and individuals who are economically disadvantaged, etc.) from full participation in a society’s mainstream social, economic, cultural, and political structures (Cook, 2008). As a result of this exclusion, these marginalized groups often do not receive the same access to societal resources, such as high-quality education, healthcare, housing, or equal access to voting as those groups that are not marginalized. Marginalization is an essential concept in the delivery of patient care. Marginalization is the “act of placing a person or group in positions of lesser importance, influence, or power” (Dictionary.com., 2021). Examples of groups that have been and are being marginalized include ethnic and racial minorities, immigrants, the LGBTQ population, persons who are disabled, and the economically dis- advantaged. Some experts have identified the following three themes of marginalization (Baah et al., 2019): 1. Creation of margins: Margins act as barriers and connections between a person and the environment. Margins construct physical, emotional, and psychological boundaries that people experience during social interactions. Enforcement and maintenance of boundaries divide the political and socioeconomic resources unevenly. This also facilitates the unbalanced distribution of critical resources such as healthcare (Baah et al., 2019). This illustrates the concept of social determinants of health (SDH), which is defined as “the circumstances in which people are born, live, work and age and the systems put in place to deal with illness” (World Health Organization [WHO], 2010). 2. Living between cultures: Living between cultures is another factor that links marginalization to SDH. Although the boundary or margin separates the dominant and peripheralized group, incomplete integration leads to a person or group that lives between
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