Hyperlipidemias and Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease ________________________________________
The LDL-lowering benefit of bile acid-binding resins is offset in the long term by the upregulation of cholesterol and triglyceride synthesis and a possible increase in VLDL synthesis. Accordingly, these drugs should be used cautiously in patients with hypertriglyceridemia. Bile acid-binding resins lower the incidence of coronary events in middle-aged men by about 20%, with no significant effect on total mortality [67]. Overall, bile acid-binding resins have a solid safety record, have been shown to lower LDL by 10% to 24%, and help reduce the risk of CHD [30; 31; 130; 131]. Colesevelam, the newest drug in this class, lowers glycated hemoglobin and fasting plasma glucose and is approved as add-on therapy for glycemic control in select patients with type 2 diabetes [109; 132]. Adverse Effects Bile acid-binding resins have very low potential to cause systemic adverse effects because they are not absorbed systemically. However, some patients may report gastrointestinal symptoms, including constipation (10%), dyspepsia, and bloating (1% to 8%) [109; 133]. Drug Interactions The bile acid-binding resins cholestyramine, colestipol, and to a lesser extent colesevelam inhibit intestinal absorption of a variety of lipophilic drugs. This includes fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K), corticosteroids, estrogens, progestins, thyroid and thyroxine preparations, and negatively charged (i.e., acidic) compounds such as warfarin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), acetaminophen, valproic acid, folic acid, furosemide and thiazide diuretics, digitalis glycosides, tetracyclines, propranolol, and the oral antidiabetic drugs glipizide, troglitazone, and glyburide. These drug interactions increase intestinal elimination of the drug-resin complexes, resulting in decreased absorption, drug bioavailability, and therapeutic efficacy. Cholesterol Absorption Inhibitors Mechanism of Action and Clinical Pharmacology Cholesterol absorption inhibitors block the intestinal absorption of cholesterol of dietary and biliary origin as well as plant sterols. Plant sterols (also known as phytosterols) and ezetimibe block the absorption of cholesterol in the intestine through two different mechanisms of action. Phytosterols are more hydrophobic than cholesterol and displace the latter from micelles, promoting its intestinal elimination. The absorption of sterols and cholesterol across cells of the intestinal lumen requires the participation of the molecular transporter NPC1L1. Sterol binding to the NPC1L1 transporter further inhibits cholesterol absorption. Sterols are available from plant sources, dietary fiber supplements, and plant sterol-enriched margarines. If absorbed in the intestine, sterols’ action against cholesterol is compromised.
Ezetimibe selectively targets and inhibits the transporter NPC1L1, preventing the uptake of cholesterol and phytosterol across the intestinal lumen. Inhibition of cholesterol absorption increases the expression of hepatic LDL receptors and enhances clearance of LDL from the circulation. Ezetimibe is indicated as adjunctive therapy to diet for the reduction of total cholesterol, LDL, and Apo B in patients with primary (heterozygous familial and nonfamilial) hyperlipidemia [109; 133]. It lowers LDL by 15% to 20% and causes minimal increases in HDL, but its beneficial effect on prevention of CHD remains unclear. This agent is synergistic with statins and, if taken in conjunction, can lower LDL by up to 25% in addition to the results obtained by statins alone [109; 134]. Ezetimibe is available in a combination formulation with the statin simvastatin under the brand name Vytorin. A second combination formulation combining ezetimibe with the statin atorvastatin, brand name Liptruzet, received FDA approval in 2013. However, Liptruzet was recalled in 2014 for packaging issues and discontinued in 2016 [109; 133; 135; 136]. Ezetimibe reduces cholesterol absorption by approximately 50%. However, quite unlike the bile acid-binding resins, it does not prevent the absorption of triglycerides or fat-soluble vitamins, and the effects of ezetimibe in the prevention of CHD have not yet been clearly established [30; 46; 67; 137; 138]. Adverse Effects Upper respiratory tract infection (4%), sinusitis (3%), diarrhea (4%), arthralgia (3%), and pain in an extremity (4%) are the most commonly reported adverse events associated with these
medications [109]. Drug Interactions
Ezetimibe interacts with cyclosporine, cholestyramine, and fibrates. The combination of ezetimibe with a statin is contraindicated in patients with active liver disease or unexplained persistent elevations in serum transaminases, as well as in pregnant and nursing women [109; 133]. FIBRATES Mechanism of Action and Clinical Pharmacology Fibrates, also known as fibric acid derivatives, are agonists at the PPAR- α . These nuclear receptors are expressed primarily in hepatocytes and muscle cells, and their stimulation by fibrates results in activation of specific genes and subsequent changes in lipid metabolism. The lipid-lowering properties of fibrates result from multiple mechanisms of action, namely activation of lipoprotein lipase, which lowers triglycerides and VLDL; inhibition of Apo C-III synthesis in the liver, preventing the inhibitory action of Apo C-III on lipoprotein lipase activity; and stimulation of Apo A-I and Apo A-II expression, which increases HDL levels [139].
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